Hypoxia Increases β-Cell Death by Activating Pancreatic Stellate Cells within the Islet

BackgroundHypoxia can occur in pancreatic islets in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Pancreatic stellate cells (PSCs) are activated during hypoxia. Here we aimed to investigate whether PSCs within the islet are also activated in hypoxia, causing β-cell injury.MethodsIslet and primary PSCs were isolated from Sprague Dawley rats, and cultured in normoxia (21% O2) or hypoxia (1% O2). The expression of α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), as measured by immunostaining and Western blotting, was used as a marker of PSC activation. Conditioned media (hypoxia-CM) were obtained from PSCs cultured in hypoxia.ResultsIslets and PSCs cultured in hypoxia exhibited higher expressions of α-SMA than did those cultured in normoxia. Hypoxia increased the production of reactive oxygen species. The addition of N-acetyl-L-cysteine, an antioxidant, attenuated the hypoxia-induced PSC activation in islets and PSCs. Islets cultured in hypoxia-CM showed a decrease in cell viability and an increase in apoptosis.ConclusionPSCs within the islet are activated in hypoxia through oxidative stress and promote islet cell death, suggesting that hypoxia-induced PSC activation may contribute to β-cell loss in type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Hypoxia Increases β-Cell Death by Activating Pancreatic Stellate Cells within the Islet

BackgroundHypoxia can occur in pancreatic islets in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Pancreatic stellate cells (PSCs) are activated during hypoxia. Here we aimed to investigate whether PSCs within the islet are also activated in hypoxia, causing β-cell injury.MethodsIslet and primary PSCs were isolated from Sprague Dawley rats, and cultured in normoxia (21% O2) or hypoxia (1% O2). The expression of α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), as measured by immunostaining and Western blotting, was used as a marker of PSC activation. Conditioned media (hypoxia-CM) were obtained from PSCs cultured in hypoxia.ResultsIslets and PSCs cultured in hypoxia exhibited higher expressions of α-SMA than did those cultured in normoxia. Hypoxia increased the production of reactive oxygen species. The addition of N-acetyl-L-cysteine, an antioxidant, attenuated the hypoxia-induced PSC activation in islets and PSCs. Islets cultured in hypoxia-CM showed a decrease in cell viability and an increase in apoptosis.ConclusionPSCs within the islet are activated in hypoxia through oxidative stress and promote islet cell death, suggesting that hypoxia-induced PSC activation may contribute to β-cell loss in type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Decreased Expression and Induced Nucleocytoplasmic Translocation of Pancreatic and Duodenal Homeobox 1 in INS-1 Cells Exposed to High Glucose and Palmitate

BACKGROUND: Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is often accompanied by increased levels of circulating fatty acid. Elevations in fatty acids and glucose for prolonged periods of time have been suggested to cause progressive dysfunction or apoptosis of pancreatic beta cells in T2DM. However, the precise mechanism of this adverse effect is not well understood. METHODS: INS-1 rat-derived insulin-secreting cells were exposed to 30 mM glucose and 0.25 mM palmitate for 48 hours. RESULTS: The production of reactive oxygen species increased significantly. Pancreatic and duodenal homeobox 1 (Pdx1) expression was down-regulated, as assessed by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and Western blot analyses. The promoter activities of insulin and Pdx1 were also diminished. Of note, there was nucleocytoplasmic translocation of Pdx1, which was partially prevented by treatment with an antioxidant, N-acetyl-L-cysteine. CONCLUSION: Our data suggest that prolonged exposure of beta cells to elevated levels of glucose and palmitate negatively affects Pdx1 expression via oxidative stress.

Protective Effect of Heme Oxygenase-1 on High Glucose-Induced Pancreatic beta-Cell Injury

BACKGROUND: Glucose toxicity that is caused by chronic exposure to a high glucose concentration leads to islet dysfunction and induces apoptosis in pancreatic beta-cells. Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) has been identified as an anti-apoptotic and cytoprotective gene. The purpose of this study is to investigate whether HO-1 up-regulation when using metalloprotophyrin (cobalt protoporphyrin, CoPP) could protect pancreatic beta-cells from high glucose-induced apoptosis. METHODS: Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction was performed to analyze the CoPP-induced mRNA expression of HO-1. Cell viability of INS-1 cells cultured in the presence of CoPP was examined by acridine orange/propidium iodide staining. The generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) was measured using flow cytometry. Glucose stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) was determined following incubation with CoPP in different glucose concentrations. RESULTS: CoPP increased HO-1 mRNA expression in both a dose- and time-dependent manner. Overexpression of HO-1 inhibited caspase-3, and the number of dead cells in the presence of CoPP was significantly decreased when exposed to high glucose conditions (HG). CoPP also decreased the generation of intracellular ROS by 50% during 72 hours of culture with HG. However, decreased GSIS was not recovered even in the presence of CoPP. CONCLUSION: Our data suggest that CoPP-induced HO-1 up-regulation results in protection from high glucose-induced apoptosis in INS-1 cells; however, glucose stimulated insulin secretion is not restored.

Transdifferentiation of Enteroendocrine K-cells into Insulin-expressing Cells / 당뇨병

BACKGROUND: Despite a recent breakthough in human islet transplantation for treating type 1 diabetes mellitus, the limited availability of donor pancreases remains a major obstacle. Endocrine cells within the gut epithelium (enteroendocrine cells) and pancreatic beta cells share similar pathways of differentiation during embryonic development. In particular, K-cells that secrete glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) have been shown to express many of the key proteins found in beta cells. Therefore, we hypothesize that K-cells can be transdifferentiated into beta cells because both cells have remarkable similarities in their embryonic development and cellular phenotypes. METHODS: K-cells were purified from heterogeneous STC-1 cells originating from an endocrine tumor of a mouse intestine. In addition, a K-cell subclone expressing stable Nkx6.1, called "Kn4-cells," was successfully obtained. In vitro differentiation of K-cells or Kn4-cells into beta cells was completed after exendin-4 treatment and serum deprivation. The expressions of insulin mRNA and protein were examined by RT-PCR and immunocytochemistry. The interacellular insulin content was also measured. RESULTS: K-cells were found to express glucokinase and GIP as assessed by RT-PCR and Western blot analysis. RT-PCR showed that K-cells also expressed Pdx-1, NeuroD1/Beta2, and MafA, but not Nkx6.1. After exendin-4 treatment and serum deprivation, insulin mRNA and insulin or C-peptide were clearly detected in Kn4-cells. The intracellular insulin content was also increased significantly in these cells. CONCLUSION: K-cells are an attractive potential source of insulin-producing cells for treatment of type 1 diabetes mellitus. However, more experiments are necessary to optimize a strategy for converting K-cells into beta cells.

The Effect of Epicatechin on the High Glucose-induced TSP-1 Expression and MMP-2 Activity in Rat Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells / 대한내분비학회지

BACKGROUND: The incidence of atherosclerosis is well correlated with the progression of type 2 diabetes mellitus. High plasma glucose in uncontrolled diabetic patients evokes many vascular complications such as atherosclerosis. Specifically, high glucose was reported to induce thrombospondin-1 (TSP-1), which activates matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) and leads to the invasion of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) into the intima. Catechins with antioxidant effects are known to inhibit MMP-2 activity. Therefore, this study was aimed at revealing the effect of epicatechin, one of catechins, on high glucose-induced TSP-1 and the invasiveness of VSMCs. METHODS: VSMCs were primarily isolated from Sprague-Dawley rat aorta. The VSMCs were incubated with different doses (30, 100 and 300 micrometer) of epicatechin under high glucose concentration (30 mM). The TSP-1 protein and mRNA expressions were analyzed by performing Western blotting and Northern blot analyses, respectively. RT-PCR was performed to observe the MMP-2 mRNA expression. Gelatin zymography was performed for the measurement of MMP-2 activity. Invasion assays were performed to evaluate the invasiveness of VSMCs. RESULTS: Epicatechin inhibited the high glucose-induced TSP-1 expression and the MMP-2 activity in a dose-dependent manner. Also, epicatechin inhibited the high glucose-induced invasiveness of VSMCs across the matrix barrier in a dose-dependent fashion. CONCLUSION: Collectively, epicatechin may prevent the high glucose-induced proliferation and invasion of VSMCs by inhibiting the TSP-1 expression and the MMP-2 activity. Therefore, epicatechin appears to play a protective role in the development of atherosclerosis.

The Effect of Epicatechin on the High Glucose-induced TSP-1 Expression and MMP-2 Activity in Rat Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells / 대한내분비학회지

BACKGROUND: The incidence of atherosclerosis is well correlated with the progression of type 2 diabetes mellitus. High plasma glucose in uncontrolled diabetic patients evokes many vascular complications such as atherosclerosis. Specifically, high glucose was reported to induce thrombospondin-1 (TSP-1), which activates matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) and leads to the invasion of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) into the intima. Catechins with antioxidant effects are known to inhibit MMP-2 activity. Therefore, this study was aimed at revealing the effect of epicatechin, one of catechins, on high glucose-induced TSP-1 and the invasiveness of VSMCs. METHODS: VSMCs were primarily isolated from Sprague-Dawley rat aorta. The VSMCs were incubated with different doses (30, 100 and 300 micrometer) of epicatechin under high glucose concentration (30 mM). The TSP-1 protein and mRNA expressions were analyzed by performing Western blotting and Northern blot analyses, respectively. RT-PCR was performed to observe the MMP-2 mRNA expression. Gelatin zymography was performed for the measurement of MMP-2 activity. Invasion assays were performed to evaluate the invasiveness of VSMCs. RESULTS: Epicatechin inhibited the high glucose-induced TSP-1 expression and the MMP-2 activity in a dose-dependent manner. Also, epicatechin inhibited the high glucose-induced invasiveness of VSMCs across the matrix barrier in a dose-dependent fashion. CONCLUSION: Collectively, epicatechin may prevent the high glucose-induced proliferation and invasion of VSMCs by inhibiting the TSP-1 expression and the MMP-2 activity. Therefore, epicatechin appears to play a protective role in the development of atherosclerosis.

Altered Cholecystokinin-induced Calcium Signal in Streptozotocin-induced Diabetic Rat Pancreatic Acini / 대한소화기학회지

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Pancreatic acini of streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats release amylase less than normal acini on cholecystokinin (CCK) stimulation. Pancreatic enzyme secretion has been closely related to the intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i) of the acinar cell. In the present study, sequential changes of the intracellular calcium signal which probably underlie the altered enzyme secretion in response to CCK-8 were investigated using pancreatic acini from diabetic rats. METHODS: Diabetic rats were prepared by single intravenous injection of STZ (70 mg/kg). Stimulating experiments with CCK-8 were performed 7 days later. Pancreatic acini were isolated by collagenase digestion. Amylase release and [Ca2+]i were measured by colorimethod and calcium imaging, respectively. The geometry of intracellular calcium signal was analyzed. RESULTS: Normal acini exhibited concentration-dependent [Ca2+]i increase and regular oscillatory calcium signal on CCK-8 stimulation. Amylase release was also concentration-dependent. However, diabetic acini showed significantly less [Ca2+]i increase, prolonged time to peak [Ca2+]i, decreased calcium spikes number, and decreased amylase release compared with normal acini. The decreased [Ca2+]i in diabetic acini was restored significantly by insulin treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Relatively decreased amylase release in diabetic pancreatic acini in response to CCK, appears to be associated with altered calcium signal due to insulin deficiency.

Electrophysiological and Morphological Classification of Inhibitory Interneurons in Layer II/III of the Rat Visual Cortex

Interneuron diversity is one of the key factors to hinder understanding the mechanism of cortical neural network functions even with their important roles. We characterized inhibitory interneurons in layer II/III of the rat primary visual cortex, using patch-clamp recording and confocal reconstruction, and classified inhibitory interneurons into fast spiking (FS), late spiking (LS), burst spiking (BS), and regular spiking non-pyramidal (RSNP) neurons according to their electrophysiological characteristics. Global parameters to identify inhibitory interneurons were resting membrane potential (> -70 mV) and action potential (AP) width ( 200 M omega) and the shorter P-T time (< 20 msec) than those of regular spiking pyramidal neurons. Confocal reconstruction of recorded cells revealed characteristic morphology of each subtype of inhibitory interneurons. Thus, our results provide at least four subtypes of inhibitory interneurons in layer II/III of the rat primary visual cortex and a classification scheme of inhibitory interneurons.

Comparative Analysis of Phospholipase D2 Localization in the Pancreatic Islet of Rat and Guinea Pig

To examine the localization pattern of phospholipase D2 (PLD2) in the pancreatic islet (the islet of Langerhans) depending on species, we conducted a morphological experiment in the rat and guinea pig. Since individual islets display a typical topography with a central core of B cell mass and a peripheral boundary of A, D, and PP cells, double immunofluorescent staining with a panel of antibodies was performed to identify PLD2-immunoreactive cells in the islets PLD2 immunoreactivity was mainly present in A and PP cells of the rat pancreatic islets. And yet, in the guinea pig, PLD2 immunoreactivity was exclusively localized in A cells, and not in PP cells. These findings suggest a possibility that PLD2 is mainly located in A cells of rodent pancreatic islets, and that the existence of PLD2 in PP cells is not universal in all species. Based on these results, it is suggested that PLD2 may play a significant role in the function of A and/or PP cells via a PLD-mediated signaling pathway.

Altered Secretory Pattern of Pancreatic Enzymes and Gastrointestinal Hormones in Streptozotocin-induced Diabetic Rats

This study was performed to investigate the pancreatic exocrine dysfunction in streptozotocin- induced diabetic rats. Changes in pancreatic enzymes secretion and in pancreatic enzymes content were observed. The output and the tissue content of amylase were significantly reduced in diabetic rats, while the output and the content of lipase were increased. Plasma secretin and cholecystokinin (CCK) concentrations of diabetic rats were significantly increased compared to those of normal rats. The altered pancreatic exocrine function was abolished by the exogenous insulin administration. The exogenous insulin also restored the increased plasma secretin and CCK concentrations. From the above results, it is suggested that, in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats, anticoordinated changes in pancreatic enzymes secretion as well as pancreatic enzymes content are attributable to insulin deficiency and that the insulin deficiency is responsible for the increased plasma concentrations of both secretin and CCK. However, it is not clear whether the elevated plasma secretin and CCK concentrations played a direct role in changes of pancreatic exocrine function.